Saltwater Aquarium
:See also: Reef safe fish. A marine aquarium is an aquarium that keeps marine plants and animals in a contained environment. Marine aquaria are further subdivided by hobbyists into fish only (FO), fish only with live rock (FOWLR), and reef aquaria. Marine fishkeeping is different from its freshwater counterpart because of the fundamental differences in the constitution of saltwater and the resulting differences in the adaptation of its inhabitants. A stable marine aquarium requires more equipment than freshwater systems, and generally requires more stringent water quality monitoring. The inhabitants of a marine aquarium are often difficult to acquire and are usually more expensive than freshwater aquarium inhabitants. However, the inhabitants of saltwater aquariums are usually much more spectacular than freshwater aquarium fish. ]] Marine fishkeeping history The very first saltwater tanks were Venetian glass jars where the Romans kept anemones outside but were very short lived. The first personal saltwater fishkeeping began on a wider scale in the 1950s, starting with the basic rectangular glass aquariums (usually 20 gallon), still popular today. Bleached coral along with a substrate of coarse crushed coral was the norm. Algae, including beneficial types such as coralline, were viewed negatively and generally removed. The clean, sterile tank was viewed as the healthiest. During the beginning days of marine aquaria, saltwater was initially collected at local beaches. Natural saltwater contains many unwanted organisms, along with the occasional unwanted pollutant. Aquarium literature of the time suggests that the most commonly kept marine fish of the day were the percula clownfish, sergeant major damselfish, small, brackish pufferfish and scats, jeweled blennies, and blue damsels. Aquariums were equipped with large air compressors, and were heavily aerated and filtered (primarily with undergravel filters, a norm for some time). Later, air driven, counter-current protein skimmers were invented and revolutionized in Germany along with the Eheim pump company. Perhaps the largest revolution in fishkeeping was a more reliable submersible electric heater, invented by Eugen Jäger. Even today, Jäger is still a major company in aquarium heating. Various initial aquarists attempted to find the chemical properties of sea water and mix in necessary trace elements to create synthetic salt mixes. Perhaps the first and undoubtedly the largest synthetic sea salt company was Instant Ocean. This revolutionized marine fishkeeping in landlocked areas instead of restricting it to areas near sources of seawater. Various advancements in filtration included the trickle and hang-on filters, both allowing a more natural equilibrium to the aquarium environment. The advancement of fluorescent lighting technologies into higher outputs along with metal halide lighting established the reef tank, making it a possible to keep corals and invertebrates without natural sunlight. More efficient chemical testing and more advanced knowledge allowed aquarists to have an idea about the chemical conditions and properties of aquariums. The biological establishment and understanding of maintaining an artificial ocean environment brought more successful and widespread marine fishkeeping. In the 1980s, the multitude of aquarium publications had greatly increased, and general chemical and biological knowledge was more widespread. Modern fishkeeping Marine aquarium components The major components are an aquarium, usually made from glass or acrylic, filtration equipment, lighting, and an aquarium heater. Marine aquariums can range in volume from less than 80 liters, (< 20 US gal) to over 1,200 litres (300 US gal). Small volumes are more difficult to maintain due to the more rapid changes in water chemistry. The majority of saltwater aquariums are between 160 and 400 liters (40 and 100 US gal). Types of marine aquariums Marine aquarists typically divide saltwater aquariums into those housing fish only, those housing fish with live rock, and those primarily designed to house corals and other invertebrates (also known as reef aquariums). Many fish hobbyists also divide the types of saltwater tanks based on the water temperatures at which they are kept. Tropical marine The most common type of saltwater fish tank, the tropical marine tank, houses marine animals from tropical climates. Usually kept between 76-82°F, these tanks include tropical reef tanks, as well as fish-only tanks. These tanks tend to have a low concentrations of microscopic plankton and other foods eaten by filter feeders. Because of this the tanks tend to be very clear. Most livestock for these aquariums are acquired through commercial means. Temperate marine (coldwater marine) One of the more obscure types of fish tanks, the coldwater marine tank, holds fish of temperate climates. With temperatures ranging around 50-75°F, these tanks are not as aesthetically pleasing as their tropical counterparts, since most coldwater fish are gray or dull in color. They also tend to require extra skill to maintain. Since coldwater cnidaria are rare and coldwater corals almost non-existent, hobbyists are largely confined to fish, crustaceans and mollusks. Since there are very few commercially available coldwater fish, hobbyists usually have to physically acquire specimens. The most common way of doing this is by trolling or seining. Unlike commercially available tropical fish, whose behavior patterns and tank compatibilities are well documented, coldwater fish require much local ichthyology knowledge in order to maintain them. Many temperate fish have specific local diet requirements, while others, like tautog (blackfish), will eat just about any crustacean or frozen foods. The blackfish should not be kept with crabs and mollusks, while other fish, like the oyster cracker toadfish, will do fine with any fish that is not small enough to fit into its mouth. Due to it being such a localized hobby, not many people go the route of local tanks. However, they are more cost-effective than reef tanks, cheaper and easier to maintain, and the fish hardier. Most coldwater hobbyists start at a young age, and it takes experience before one can successfully gauge the compatibility of the fish in your area. Live rock Live rock is rock that has been in the ocean, composed of limestone and decomposing coral skeleton, usually around a coral reef such as those around Fiji, and is usually covered with beneficial algae, coralline and tiny invertebrates and bacteria that are desirable in the aquarium. Some examples of the microfauna commonly found on live rock are crabs, snails, feather dusters, brittle stars, starfish, limpets, abalones, and an occasional sea urchin, sea anemone, coral, and sea sponge. Also, if the aquarist is unlucky, a mantis shrimp. Bristleworms are also common, most of which, while unattractive, are not harmful and are useful scavengers; some species can be pests, however. The addition of live rock is one of the best ways to ensure a healthy aquarium, as the rock provides a buffer to maintain high pH (8.0-8.3), alkalinity, and acid-neutralizing capacity. Alkalinity is often known by a rather confusing term, "carbonate hardness", or KH. This is usually measured in "degrees" (dKH) or meq/L. The microfauna found on live rock are detrivores and herbivores (as they eat algae and fish waste), and provide fish with a natural, attractive shelter. Live rock usually arrives from online dealers as "uncured", and must be quarantined in a separate tank while undergoing the curing process, which involves the inevitable die-off of some of the rock's inhabitants and the subsequent production of undesirable ammonia and nitrite. Live rock that is already cured is available at most pet stores that cater to saltwater. Live sand is similar to live rock and is equally desirable. Filtration In general, marine aquariums have more complex filtration requirements than most freshwater aquariums. The various components frequently include Wet and dry filters and Protein skimmers. Protein skimmers are devices that remove organic compounds prior to their degradation, and are also very useful in marine aquariums. Protein skimming is also used in the popular Berlin method that relies on live rock, and periodic partial water changes to degrade and remove waste products. The Berlin method relies on large amounts of live rock being included in the aquarium. The rule of thumb is 1/2 - 1 lb. per 1 US gallon (0.2 - 0.4 kg per 4 liters). Some marine aquariums also include a refugium and/or a sump. Refugiums are small containers, or aquariums hidden behind or beneath the main aquarium and connected to it via a water pump. Refugiums have recently become quite popular among reef aquarists. Refugiums serve several purposes: adding water volume, providing a fish-free site for biological filtration in live rock and/or the sandbed. Fish-free refugiums are host to populations of copepods, amphipods, isopods and other zooplankton. The sump may contain a number of compartments, each with its own filtration material. Often, heaters, thermostats, and protein skimmers are placed in the sump. Lighting Regular cyclical lighting is used in aquariums to simulate day and night. This is beneficial for fish and invertebrates since it establishes a routine, enables them to rest, and makes them feel more secure. The lighting used varies depending on the inhabitants of the aquarium. Typically, the type of lighting for aquariums with fish only is regarded as unimportant. In aquariums containing invertebrates, however, where algal growth (of both free-living and symbiotic algae) is desired, more intense lighting is required. There are many types of lights available: some common types include fluorescent, VHO fluorescent (Very High Output), compact fluorescent, LED and metal halide. Actinic lights produce a deep blue spectrum designed to simulate the dominant wavelength of light a few metres below the ocean's surface. Many different sources make different claims about what type of lighting system is the best. In reality, each technology or variation has its own advantages and disadvantages. The most primitive lighting source is natural sunlight. This is only effective in areas near the equator because the intensity of sunlight is greatest there. Efficiently utilizing natural sunlight requires complex planning and is usually utilized on only the largest reef systems. The next step up in technology is incandescent lamps. These are very wasteful of energy, producing between 15 and 30 lumens per watt of power (Out of a possible 683 lumens per watt for an ideal light source). Standard fluorescent lamps offer a great improvement over incandescents. There are better colour temperatures available in fluorescent tubes that are more suited to aquariums than those of regular light bulb. They are also more efficient, averaging between 90 and 95 lumens per watt. The downside to regular fluorescent lights is that they do not have the intensity to penetrate into deeper aquariums. There are a number of improved variations of fluorescent technology. The main ones are very high output (VHO), power compact fluorescent (PC), and T-5 high output (HO). VHO lamps are fluorescent lamps run at higher power levels, usually about three times the standard wattage for a given bulb length. They have the advantage of high light output, but the larger diameter bulbs limit the efficiency of reflectors. PC lighting is also high-power fluorescent lighting, but the bulbs are folded to put more tubes in a given space. The output of PC lamps are reduced by inefficient reflector designs. VHO and PC bulbs are also fairly expensive to replace. T-5 HO lights are the newest variation on fluorescent lights. They are run at slightly higher power levels than standard fluorescent lamps, but are made significantly thinner. This allows for more efficient reflector designs that get more light into the aquarium. Because of this, higher quality T-5 systems often match or exceed the output of equivalent compact fluorescent or VHO lighting fixtures. All types of fluorescent lighting offer the same efficiency in lumens per watt; it is the shape of the bulb and reflectors that makes their overall outputs different. Metal halide lights are the next level up from fluorescent technology. Metal halides produce about 90-100 lumens per watt of power. This is roughly the same as fluorescent. The improvement with metal halides is that they concentrate this light output into a very small space, whereas fluorescent lights evenly illuminate the entire aquarium. This is often referred to as point source lighting, and is what causes the rippling visual effect on many advanced aquarium setups. This concentration of light output increases the intensity, allowing metal halide lamps to get a lot of light to even the very bottom levels of most aquariums. Metal halides are available in many color temperatures, from 6500K up to 20,000K, though bulbs as high as 50,000K are occasionally found. The downsides of metal halide lighting are the cost and the heat produced. Most metal halide fixtures are more than double the price of an equivalent wattage fluorescent system, though prices have begun to drop in recent years. Halide lamps concentrate heat as well as light output. The surface of an operating lamp becomes hot enough to cause second or third degree burns instantly, so this lighting technology must be used with caution. The heat produced can also warm the aquarium to unacceptable levels, often necessitating the use of a chiller. The most recent addition to the list of aquarium lighting technologies is LED lighting. These have the potential to be much more efficient than any other technology, but have not yet become so because of issues of heat dissipation. LED's have the advantage of point source lighting, but are also completely dimmable at any power level. This allows for more advanced lighting schedules, even the simulation of cloud cover. So far, LED's have found use mainly as lunar lighting. When considering lighting for an aquarium, there are generally two factors to consider: wattage and color temperature. Depending on the type of lighting (i.e. fluorescents, metal halide, etc) the wattage of light emitted may vary considerably, from tens of watts to several hundred watts in a lighting system. Wattage, while not indicative of color, is equivalent to power and essentially determines how brightly the light will shine. Due to the scattering of light in water, the deeper one's tank is, the more powerful the lighting required. Color temperature, measured in kelvin (albeit slightly unrepresentively) refers to the color of light being emitted by the lamp and is based on the concept of blackbody radiation. Light from the sun has a color temperature of approximately 5900 K and lighting systems with color temperatures >5000 K tend to be best for growing plants in both the marine and freshwater setting. 10,000 K light appears bluish-white and emphasizes coloration in fishes and corals. Higher up on the spectrum there are 14,000 K and 20,000 K bulbs that produce a deep blue tint which mimic the lighting conditions underseas, creating an optimal ambience for invertebrates and livestock present. Heating Most marine aquarium inhabitants are endemic to tropical reefs and waters in Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Red Sea. Marine aquarium temperatures should mimic the natural environment of the inhabitants and are most commonly maintained at 24 to 28 degrees Celsius (75-82 °F). In regions where the ambient temperature is less than the desired temperature of the aquarium this generally necessitates the use of an aquarium heater. In some areas ambient temperature is greater than the desired temperature and refrigeration devices, known as "chillers", are used to cool the aquarium water. Water testing Marine aquarists commonly test the water in the aquarium for a variety of chemical indicators of water quality. These include: * Specific gravity, a relative measure of water density, is normally maintained between 1.020 and 1.024 in aquariums with fish only, and 1.023 and 1.026 for aquariums containing invertebrates. Salinity should therefore be between 28 and 35 PPT, with the higher values being beneficial in advanced reef systems. Because salinity is by definition directly related to specific gravity, both can be tested with an inexpensive hydrometer or refractometer. * pH should be maintained between 8.1 and 8.3. This can be raised with a commercially available buffering agent or through calcium-rich substrata. Carbonate hardness (KH) should be between 8 and 12 degrees. A calibrated calcium reactor can assist in maintaining both pH and carbonate hardness. Using purified water from a reverse osmosis / deionization (RO/DI) unit can prevent KH and pH fluctuation. The nitrogen cycle refers to the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrite and finally nitrate. While fish waste (urine and feces) and decaying matter release ammonia, the majority of ammonia released (approximately 60%) in both marine and freshwater aquariums is excreted directly into the water from the fishes' gills. Biological (bacterial) nitrification converts the ammonia into nitrite ions, NO2-, and then to nitrate ions, NO3-. Nitrate is readily taken up and assimilated by algae and hermatypic corals. Some nitrate is converted via an anaerobic bacterial process to free nitrogen, but this process is very difficult to maintain. Most nitrate, which is less toxic to fishes and most invertebrates than nitrites, accumulates in the water until it is physically removed by a water change. Ammonia and nitrite should be tested regularly; any detectable levels (i.e., over 0 ppm) can be indicative of a problem. Nitrates should not exceed 20ppm in reef tanks, or 40 ppm in fish-only tanks. It is normal to have a small amount of nitrate buildup, and some livestock are more capable of living in these conditions than others. Most hermatypic corals, while able to assimilate nitrate, cannot be expected to survive indefinitely with chronically high nitrate concentrations (>40 mg/L as nitrate ion (~ 10 mg/L nitrate-nitrogen)). Other suggested tests include those for calcium, alkalinity, iodine, strontium, molybdenum, and other trace minerals. It is often beneficial (and necessary) for the aquarist to research the water chemistry parameters for the specific organism that is desired. Water changes Water changes are a staple of good saltwater maintenance. Larger (approximately 200 gallon) aquariums are much more stable and water changes may not need to take place if the nitrogen cycle has fully established itself in the tank, although this a controversial statement among aquarists. Supplements are sometimes needed (such as calcium). Water changes involve removing a fraction of the total volume of the aquarium, replacing that water with new pre-mixed saltwater. Pre-mixed saltwater has been dechlorinated and/or dechloraminated--typically with an additive such as bisulfite or through filtering. Water should be brought to the same temperature if more than a 5% change is occurring. Salinity should match that of the aquarium, or be dosed very slowly if altering the salinity. Aging and aerating saltwater (such as in a bucket with a powerhead or airstone) is recommended as good practice to allow the pH to stabilize. Replacement water should be of the same source as the aquarium, whether it be reverse osmosis (RO), de-ionized (DI), distilled or from a municipal supply, in order to avoid drastic changes in water chemistry. In cases where one is replacing a tap water-based salt mix with a reverse osmosis-based salt mix, the replacement water should be added slowly over the course of several hours to avoid sending the aquarium inhabitants into osmotic shock. If using municipal water, one should check with the local utility company to find out the composition of that tap water. Water containing high levels of nitrate or phosphate should be avoided, and reverse osmosis or distilled water used in its place. Conservation Almost all species kept in marine aquaria at this time are caught in the wild, although tank-raised specimens are becoming increasingly common as a viable alternative. Only a few species such as clownfish are captive-bred on a commercial scale. Much collecting is done in Indonesia and the Philippines, where use of cyanide and other destructive collection methods is discouraged but unfortunately common. The majority of live rock is also harvested in the wild, and recent restrictions on this harvest in Florida have caused a shift to Fijian and aquacultured rock. Natural rock, because it is created by coral polyps, takes many years if not centuries to form, and is a vital habitat for countless marine species; thus, commercial-scale harvesting of naturally-occurring live rock has been criticized by conservationists. Additionally, many animal species sold to hobbyists have very specific dietary and habitat requirements that cannot be met by hobbyists (e.g. Labroides genus wrasses, the moorish idol); these animals almost inevitably die quickly and have markedly reduced lifespans compared to wild specimens. Often these specific environmental requirements cause improperly housed lifestock's color and appearance to be poor. These issues are often downplayed by individuals and organizations with a financial interest in the trade. Hobbyists should be urged to buy only certified net-caught fish (although ensuring the legitimacy of such claims can be difficult) or captive-raised fish, as well as farmed corals and to support legitimate reef conservation efforts. The majority of corals can be "fragged", whereby a portion of a larger captive coral is separated and can subsequently be raised into an individual specimen, allowing for coral propagation within the domestic aquarium; the trade in frags (i.e. fragments) offers a fantastic opportunity for marine aquarists to obtain new and unique corals while limiting the impact on the natural environment. Rare species and those without a history of being successfully kept in captivity should be avoided. Commercial front Various businesses have brought a commercial front to fishkeeping, perhaps the largest being Marineland, Inc. With the advent of large scale business operations focusing on breeding massive quantities of specimens, marine fishkeeping has become much more widespread than ever before. Perhaps the biggest turndown in marine fishkeeping is the initial setup cost. A 100 US gallon (400 L) reef tank full of coral and equipment can cost in excess of $2,500 US. Aside from the difficulty, this is a large factor as to why freshwater fishkeeping is still so widespread in comparison to its marine counterpart. References and further reading * Advanced Marine Aquarium Techniques, by Jay Hemdal * The Conscientious Marine Aquarist, by Robert Fenner * Invertebrates: A Quick Reference Guide, by Julian Sprung * Corals: A Quick Reference Guide, by Julian Sprung * Reef Invertebrates: An Essential Guide to Selection, Care and Compatibility, by Anthony Calfo and Robert Fenner * Aquarium Corals: Selection, Husbandry, and Natural History, by Eric H. Borneman. * Natural Reef Aquariums: Simplified Approaches to Creating Living Saltwater Microcosms, by John H. Tullock External links * * RTAW Reefpedia, a Reef Keeping wiki maintained by the Marine Aquarium Societies of Australia Category:Fishkeeping Category:Articles containing video clips de:Meerwasseraquaristik it:Acquario marino lt:Jūrinis akvariumas nl:Zeeaquarium pl:Akwarystyka morska fi:Meriakvaario sv:Saltvattenakvarium